New Zealand

New Zealand (in Maori, Aotearoa, “Land of the Long White Cloud”), independent island country in the South Pacific Ocean, a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, situated about 1,600 km (1,000 mi) south-east of Australia. It comprises two large islands—the North and South islands—separated by the narrow Cook Strait and numerous smaller islands, including Stewart Island to the south of the South Island. The area of New Zealand is 270,534 sq km (104,454 sq mi). Overseas territories governed by New Zealand are the Ross Dependency, in Antarctica, and Tokelau in the Pacific Ocean, to the north of Samoa. The Cook Islands and Niue, also in the Pacific, are self-governing territories in free association with New Zealand. The capital of the country is Wellington, the largest city Auckland; both are located on the North Island.

Land and Resources

New Zealand’s landscape is significantly defined by the fault lines that traverse the country, dividing it into blocks. The movement of these faulted blocks created (some 26 million years ago) the mountains that dominate the South Island, and is the cause of the continuing volcanism that characterizes the central North Island. Both main islands are roughly bisected by highlands: by the Southern Alps on the South Island and by lower ranges on the North. Almost three quarters of the South Island is mountainous, and about one fifth of the North Island; two thirds of New Zealand lies between about 200 and 1,070 m (650 and 3,500 ft) above sea level and there are more than 220 named peaks exceeding 2,286 m (7,500 ft). Mount Cook (Maori, Aoraki, “cloud piercer”), in the central Southern Alps, is New Zealand’s highest mountain (3,754 m/12,316 ft).

Rivers and Lakes

New Zealand is a country of many rivers, most of which originate in the highlands. They are generally short, swift, and difficult to navigate. Only on the South Island have extensive alluvial plains developed—the Canterbury Plains lying to east of the Southern Alps. Waterfalls are common. The Sutherland Falls, plunging 580 m (1,904 ft) from a hanging valley near Milford Sound, on the South Island, is the world’s fifth-highest waterfall. New Zealand’s lakes are mainly found in old volcanic craters in the central North Island—like Lake Taupo (606 sq km/234 sq mi), New Zealand’s largest lake—or in the glaciated valleys associated with the Southern Alps. New Zealand’s coast is almost 7,000 km (4,350 mi) long, including bays, fiords, gulfs, and sounds. The North Island’s coastline is particularly irregular, notably in the Northland, with its narrow and indented peninsula. The South Island has few natural inlets except in the south-west and north-east which are both heavily indented with fiords and sounds.

The North Island

The North Island, covering almost 115,777 sq km (44,689 sq mi), has greater economic potential than the South and is home to the majority of New Zealand’s population. In the centre of the island is a volcanic plateau, rising sharply from the southern shores of Lake Taupo. It is an area of active volcanism, and the focus of frequent earth tremors and small quakes. There are three active volcanoes in the plateau area—Mount Ruapehu (2,797 m/9,176 ft), the island’s highest point; Mount Ngauruhoe; and Mount Tongariro—as well as geysers, boiling mud pools, and hot springs (Tongariro National Park). East and south of the plateau, mountain ranges run from the East Cape to the Cook Strait; the eastern slopes give way to coastal lowlands; the western slopes to rolling country used for dairy farming and sheep-farming. West of the volcanic plateau, fairly mountainous country gives way to fertile farmland in the Taranaki area. Mount Taranaki (English, Egmont) is a solitary extinct volcano near the western extremity of the island (see Egmont National Park). The Waikato River (435 km/270 mi long), New Zealand’s longest river, flows north out of Lake Taupo and empties into the Tasman Sea in the west. It passes through one of the most economically important regions of the country, focused round the city of Auckland. Activities include forestry, dairy- and mixed farming, and fruit-farming. Auckland itself bestrides a narrow isthmus, in places no more than 10 km (6 mi) wide. To the north of the city, Northland becomes gradually subtropical in nature, with long sandy beaches along the west coast and mangrove swamps along the east.

The South Island

The South Island has an area of about 151,215 sq km (58,368 sq mi). The folded chain of the Southern Alps extends more than 480 km (300 mi) in a south-westerly to north-easterly direction. In addition to Mount Cook, 15 peaks in the range exceed 3,048 m (10,000 ft) in height. There are more than 300 glaciers in the Alps; New Zealand’s largest, the Tasman Glacier, flows down the eastern side of Mount Cook. The western slopes of the Alps are generally forested and wet, while the eastern slopes are drier. At their northern extremity, the Southern Alps break up into several lower ranges; those to the west contain mineral deposits. In the far south, the Alps are heavily forested and indented, creating the scenically stunning Fiordland (see Fiordland National Park). The south-east of the island comprises the Otago Plateau, a high plains area that was once the focus of gold fever but is today mainly given over to livestock-farming. The Canterbury Plains form New Zealand’s largest continuous area of flat land and its chief grain-growing region. Most of the South Island’s rivers rise in the Southern Alps, including the longest, the Clutha River (338 km/210 mi). The South Island’s largest lake is Lake Te Anau (344 sq km/133 sq mi), in the southern part of the Southern Alps. (See also Nelson Lakes National Park; Mount Cook National Park.)

Climate 

New Zealand lies within the temperate zone; the climate is generally mild and moist, and seasonal differences are not great. Northland has the warmest climate; the south-western slopes of the Southern Alps, the coldest. Rainfall is generally moderate to abundant and, except in a small area in central Otago and Canterbury on the South Island, measures approximately 1,585 mm (62 in) annually. The heaviest rainfall (6,385 mm/249 in) occurs around Milford Sound on the south-western coast of the South Island. The average temperature at Wellington varies between 20.1° C (68° F) in January, the warmest month, and 5.6° C (42° F) in July, the coldest; the average rainfall is 1,230 mm (481 in). In Auckland, January and July temperatures average 23.4° C (74° F) and 7.8° C (46° F) respectively; average annual rainfall is 1,185 mm (463 in).

Natural Resources 

New Zealand’s most important natural resource is its land. Just over half is suitable for farming; another quarter is forested. Mineral deposits are found throughout the main islands, but few are of commercial size. The most economically significant are coal, gold, iron sands, and industrial minerals like bentonite, pumice, limestone, clay, dolomite, silica sand, and gravel. Uranium and thorium have been found in isolated boulders and deposits may exist. New Zealand has rich energy resources. Apart from coal, there is the geothermal energy of the volcanic plateau, the considerable hydroelectric potential of the country’s fast-flowing rivers, and the sizeable natural gas fields on the North Island and off its south-western coast.

Plants and Animals

New Zealand’s isolation from other land masses and late settlement have encouraged the development of a unique plant life. Of the country’s 2,000 indigenous species, about 1,500 are found nowhere else in the world, for example, kowhai and pohutukawa. Before the onset of large-scale European settlement, the dominant form of vegetation in New Zealand was mixed evergreen forest with, particularly on the warmer North Island, dense undergrowth of mosses and ferns. The main exception was the grasslands of the volcanic plateau area of the North Island. Today this dense forest, or bush, survives only in areas unsuitable for settlement, and in national parks and reserves. The west coast of the South Island contains some of the largest areas of mixed indigenous forest and provides most of the native timber used commercially, such as kauri, rimu, kahikatea, and totara. The eastern lowlands of the South Island are today predominantly grassland up to a height of about 1,500 m (5,000 ft). The native false beech flourishes at lower altitudes on the Southern Alps, succeeded by alpine vegetation at high altitudes.

Since 1900 many exotic species of plant have been introduced, in particular fast-growing commercial conifers like the Douglas fir and the radiata pine (from California). Some exotic introductions have created problems; for example, gorse has become a menace, spreading over poor and good land alike.

In contrast to its rich indigenous flora, New Zealand has very few native animal species. When Maori first settled New Zealand there were only two species of lizard—the gecko and the tuatara, a prehistoric survivor with a vestigial third eye—a few species of frog, and two species of bat, the only indigenous mammal. The first white settlers found, in addition, a type of dog (Maori, Kuri) and a black rat brought by Maori, and now almost extinct. Today, New Zealand’s wildlife includes red deer, rabbits, goats, pigs, weasels, ferrets, and the Australian possum—all descended from settler imports. With no natural predators, these animals have multiplied enormously and are responsible for huge environmental damage. New Zealand has no snakes but does have a native poisonous spider, the katipo.

The lack of indigenous predatory animals made New Zealand home to a huge variety of birds, including 23 unique species. The native species include songbirds, like the bellbird and tui, but it is the flightless birds that are most associated with New Zealand. The ostrich-like moa, now extinct, were the largest of the flightless birds. The kiwi is the best known of the surviving species; others include the kakapo, takahe, and weka. Loss of habitat and the depredations of animal and (in the past) human predators mean that most native species of animals and many species of birds are now endangered and strictly protected. The sparrow, blackbird, thrush, skylark, magpie, and mynah are among the many thriving imported species. New Zealand also abounds in varieties of seabirds and migratory birds.

The country’s many rivers and lakes are home to a variety of native edible fish, including whitebait, eel, lamprey, and freshwater crustaceans, particularly crayfish. Trout and salmon have been imported. The surrounding ocean waters, a meeting place of warm and cold currents, are rich in species. The warm currents bring tuna, flying fish, and marlin, as well as sharks, which are attracted by local species such as snapper and trevally. The cold currents bring blue cod; hapuku and tarakihi are found off the entire coast. Edible shellfish include the oyster, mussel, and toheroa (a type of clam).

Population

New Zealand was one of the last significant land areas suitable for human beings to be settled. The first settlers were Maori, a Polynesian people who arrived about 1,000 years ago. European settlement did not begin until the 1820s, but today approximately 72 per cent of New Zealanders are of European (in particular, British) descent. Just over 15 per cent (1996 census, 523,371) of the population is Maori. Another 5.8 per cent comes from other Pacific Ocean islands, notably Samoa, the Cook Islands, Tonga, and Tokelau. Other ethnic groups, particularly Asian, make up the rest of the population.

Principal Cities

Wellington (1996 census, greater city, 334,051) is the political and commercial capital of New Zealand, and also the hub of inter-island and coastal shipping. The port city of Auckland (991,796) is the country’s largest city and its main industrial centre. It is also the most Polynesian of New Zealand’s cities, being home not only to many Maori but also to the world’s largest concentration of Pacific islanders. The other main urban centres, with their 1996 (greater city) population estimates, are: Christchurch (325,250), largest city of the South Island, New Zealand’s second-largest industrial area, and the focus of the grain industry; Hamilton (158,045), a dairy-farming centre on the North Island; and Dunedin (110,801), a wool and agricultural centre in the south of the South Island.

Religion

A majority of New Zealanders describe themselves as Christian. The primary denominations are Anglican (18 per cent), Presbyterian (13 per cent), and Roman Catholic (14 per cent). Methodist and other Protestant denominations are also represented. Most Maori are members of the Ratana and Ringatu Christian Churches. Jews, Hindus, and Confucians constitute small minorities. About 26 per cent profess no religious faith.

Language

English and Maori are the official languages of New Zealand, although the country is predominantly English speaking. Almost all Maori speak English; about 50,000 (12 per cent) are considered fluent Maori speakers. Other Polynesian and European, as well as Asian, languages are spoken by a small percentage of the population.

was spent on education.

Economy

New Zealand’s gross national product was about US$46,600 million in 1994, giving an average income per head of US$13,190. Gross domestic product (GDP) during the same period was about US$43,600 million. Agriculture and the export of wool, meat, and dairy products provided the foundation of New Zealand’s development into a modern economy. Agriculture is still important and traditional products still dominate foreign trade, but the New Zealand economy has undergone profound changes, particularly in the past 20 years. Agriculture now contributes almost 9 per cent of GDP, compared with 18 per cent from manufacturing, and approximately 54 per cent from services. In 1988 tourism became the single largest source of foreign exchange; receipts from more than 1 million visitors a year generated more than US$1,400 million in the mid-1990s.

Since the mid-1980s the New Zealand economy has been transformed from one of protectionism and regulation into one of the most deregulated and open economies among the developed nations. The changes were aimed at restoring economic growth, after nearly two decades of stagnation, controlling inflation, and reducing the budget deficit and New Zealand’s heavy public debt. By the mid-1990s several of these objectives appeared to have been achieved, or to be near achievement. Inflation was down to 2 per cent a year, from more than 11 per cent in the late 1980s. Economic growth was about 6 per cent in 1994, compared with about 2 per cent during the 1980s. Public debt had been reduced from more than 50 per cent of GDP to 38 per cent; it was expected to be down to 18 per cent by 1998. The budget had gone from a steady deficit to an operating surplus of US$418 million in the 1993-1994 financial year. However, the shift into budget surplus was achieved in part by large cuts in public spending, particularly in New Zealand’s comprehensive welfare state system. Medical care is no longer completely free, the value of pensions has been reduced, and means testing introduced for other benefits. Deregulation and economic reform have also led to an increase in unemployment.

Government

New Zealand is a parliamentary democracy within the Commonwealth of Nations. The head of state is the British monarch. The Governor-General is the monarch’s appointed representative in New Zealand. New Zealand’s political and judicial system is closely modelled on that of the United Kingdom. Like the United Kingdom it has no written constitution, and constitutional practice is based on tradition, convention, and precedent.

directly elected for three-year terms.

were restored.

International Organizations

New Zealand is a member of the UN, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the South Pacific Forum, and the Colombo Plan.

History

New Zealand was given its name by an unknown Dutch mapmaker, after the Dutch navigator Abel Janszoon Tasman became the first European to reach the islands in 1642; Zeeland was, at the time, a noted maritime province of the Netherlands. The British explorer Captain James Cook visited in 1769 and claimed the islands for Great Britain. However, nearly 75 years elapsed before the British government acted on his claim and formally annexed New Zealand.

Maori

The islands of New Zealand were first discovered and settled about 1,000 years before Tasman’s visit by people who originated in eastern Polynesia, possibly the Cook Islands or Tahiti. The word “Maori” is thought to date from the mid-1800s, when the descendants of the first settlers adopted it to distinguish themselves from the pakeha (Europeans); it means “ordinary” or “normal”. According to Maori tradition, the discoverer of the country was Kupe, who first gave it the name of Aotearoa (“Land of the Long White Cloud”). The first settlers lived mainly in the warmer coastal areas of the North Island, but their descendants soon spread out to inhabit both islands. By the time of Cook’s visit, the population of New Zealand is estimated to have been about 125,000.

The French, led by Marion Dufresne, quickly followed in Cook’s footsteps. Dufresne’s quarrels with Maori he met culminated, in 1772, in actions that led to his death, the deaths of 24 of his crew, and of at least 300 Maori. European, primarily British, missionaries and whalers established settlements and trading posts, chiefly in the Bay of Islands area on the North Island. Although there was some opposition, Maori generally played an active role in these ventures, taking advantage of the trading opportunities. Systematic immigration began in 1839 and 1840 under the auspices of the New Zealand Company, founded in London by Edward Gibbon Wakefield.

British Sovereignty

In part to pre-empt land-buying by the company, the British government sent Captain William Hobson to New Zealand in 1840 as consul, with authority to negotiate with the Maori chiefs. By the terms of the Treaty of Waitangi, which he drafted, the Maori ceded sovereignty to the British Crown in return for property ownership rights as British subjects, and British protection. They also agreed to sell their land only to the Crown. On February 6, 1840, 45 northern chiefs signed the treaty; another 500 did so over the next few weeks. On May 21, on the basis of the signatures, Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty over the North Island; he claimed the South Island by right of Cook’s discovery. In 1841 New Zealand was constituted a separate Crown colony, and the capital moved from Russell to Auckland.

Colonization continued apace during the ensuing decades, including the founding of two significant settlements on the South Island: Dunedin (in Otago) in 1848, and Christchurch (in Canterbury) in 1850. By 1851 the European population had reached 26,707. Disputes between the newcomers and Maori over land claims led ultimately to (intermittent) war in the North Island between 1845 and 1872 (see New Zealand Wars). The last portion of the conflict (from 1860 to 1872) was the most severe, exacerbated by British confiscation of land from rebel Maori, and caused many deaths. After that date, however, the colonial authorities pursued a more conciliatory policy that eventually resulted in the establishment of a permanent peace between the European and Maori populations.

In the South Island, unaffected by the fighting and with only a small Maori population concentrated on the coast, settlement went on uninterrupted. The discovery of alluvial gold in central Otago in 1861 caused a new influx of immigrants, many of whom settled down to farming when the gold was exhausted. Sheep-raising on the southern plains and gold-mining were the main sources of the country’s wealth in the latter part of the 19th century. The introduction of refrigerated ships in 1882 enabled New Zealand to export fresh meat, thus stimulating settlement and more intensive farming.

Parliamentary Government

The Constitution Act of 1852 conferred a general assembly with two chambers—an elected House of Representatives and a nominated legislative council. The elected general assembly first met in Auckland in 1854. A federal system of six provincial councils was also established, but only lasted until 1876. The legislative council was abolished in 1950. During most of the 19th century, political power was held alternately by loose groupings of liberals, who instituted male suffrage and compulsory education, and conservatives, who were mainly large landholders. In 1891, following the failure the previous year of a maritime strike, trade union leaders gave their support to the liberal faction. A series of Liberal Party governments continued in power until 1912, enjoying labour support until a united Labour Party was organized in 1916. These governments, first under the journalist John Ballance and, after his death, under Richard Seddon and Sir Joseph Ward, effected a programme of land reform and social legislation that gained New Zealand worldwide recognition. Large speculative landholdings were broken up under legislation that enabled the government to acquire large holdings for subdivision, and authorized the purchase of small landholdings on long-term mortgages. Other legislation established minimum rates of pay, and provided for the compulsory arbitration and settlement of labour disputes. In 1893 New Zealand became the first country to give women the vote. During this period of Liberal-Labour dominance, the foundation of the social security system was laid.

Early 20th Century

In 1907 New Zealand was officially designated a dominion of the British Empire, although its form of government was unchanged. The conservatives, campaigning as the Reform Party, regained power in 1912. During World War I, a Reform-Liberal coalition governed the country. In the war, 103,000 New Zealand men were part of the British forces. These troops fought in Egypt and in the Gallipoli campaign of 1915; the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps became known popularly as Anzacs. In 1916 New Zealand units organized as a separate division arrived in France in time for the Battle of the Somme, and the Mounted Rifles later served in the campaign in Palestine. New Zealand lost more than 18,000 men during the war; another 40,000 were wounded. However, World War I also helped to generate a new feeling of nationalism.

The collapse of a speculative land boom that flourished after the war was an important cause of the economic recession of 1921 to 1926. New Zealand’s economic problems were aggravated by the worldwide depression that began in 1930. In the 1935 parliamentary elections, the Labour Party won its first majority in a victory over the National Party—formed in 1930 by a coalition of the United and Reform parties. The new government, led by Michael Savage, nationalized parts of the economy and instituted a full welfare-state system.

World War II and Asia

With the start of World War II in 1939, New Zealand imposed wage and price controls and generally emphasized financial stability rather than social progress. New Zealand contributed a larger percentage of its population to the armed services than any of the Allies, except the United Kingdom, at the peak 150,000 personnel were serving in New Zealand’s armed forces. The army saw service in Greece, Cyprus, North Africa, Italy, and the Pacific. The air force was active in all theatres. New Zealand’s casualties numbered some 12,000 dead and 17,000 wounded.

The Labour Party lost the 1949 general elections to the National Party. In the arena of foreign affairs New Zealand participated in the Colombo Plan for South East Asia in 1951, and in 1952 concluded the ANZUS mutual-defence pact with Australia and the United States. With seven other countries, New Zealand signed the South East Asia defence treaty in 1954. New Zealand forces served with UN forces in Korea and Cyprus. Forces from the country have since served with UN peacekeeping missions in various other conflicts.

Later 20th Century: Maori Rights

One of the key issues of the post-war era, and particularly of the past 30 years, has been that of Maori rights. Maori activism for social and economic rights intensified during the 1960s and 1970s. Their demands included the use of the Maori language in education and broadcasting, and on official occasions; and more positive programmes to preserve Maori arts and culture. Their key demands, however, were linked to the return of land under the Treaty of Waitangi (Te Tiriti o Waitangi). The Waitangi Tribunal was set up under 1975 legislation to examine and make recommendations on Maori land and compensation claims. By the early 1990s a large proportion of the country was involved in over 400 claims before the tribunal, but the most contentious area was the large amount of Crown (state-owned) lands in New Zealand. A number of claims with individual tribes were settled, such as the December 1994 agreement between Waikato Maori and the government, but slow progress generally led to an increase in protests by Maori activists during 1994 and 1995. Centred on the North Island, the protests involved the temporary seizure and occupation of culturally important sites, including the Maori Arts and Crafts Institute at Rotorua in April 1995. On May 22 Prime Minister James Bolger and Dame Arikinui Te Atairangikaahu, Queen of the Tainui, the largest Maori tribal federation, signed an agreement settling finally the claims associated with some 50,000 hectares (123,552 acres) of land illegally seized by European settlers in the 1860s. It involved the payment of cash and return of land in government control valued at US$116 million (NZ$170 million). Land sold to settlers was not covered under the agreement. Queen Elizabeth II went to New Zealand in November 1995, in her capacity as head of state, to give official royal assent to the act, including its formal apology to the Maori for wrongs committed by British colonial forces.

Post-War Politics

The Labour Party was returned to power in the general elections of November 1957. Its accession coincided with the onset of the economic crisis that was to colour the 1960s—a crisis owing in part to a decline in export earnings. The National Party returned to power in 1960 under the leadership of Prime Minister Keith Holyoake. Balance of payments difficulties and inflation led the Holyoake government to retain many of the economic controls imposed by Labour.

Early in 1972 Holyoake retired. In elections held in November, the Labour Party swept back to power, under the leadership of Norman Kirk, who became prime minister. In 1973 Kirk and Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam agreed to increase economic cooperation between the two countries. This was, in part, a response to the United Kingdom’s membership of the European Community, which became effective at the start of the year. In the same year New Zealand established diplomatic ties with the People’s Republic of China.

When Kirk died in 1974, Wallace Rowling succeeded him. In 1975 the National Party returned to power under Robert Muldoon; it won re-election by a narrow margin in 1978 and 1981, and tried with limited success to cope with New Zealand’s worsening economic problems. The elections of July 1984 returned control of parliament to the Labour Party, led by David Lange. Under his premiership, major reforms of the economy were initiated, reducing government controls and trade barriers. Although many of its measures were unpopular, the Labour government won re-election in 1987. Citing ill health, Lange resigned in 1989 and was replaced by Geoffrey Palmer.

In September 1990 internal disputes within the party and the declining popularity of the government caused Palmer to resign in favour of Michael Moore. In an October election, fought mainly over economic issues, Labour was ousted by the National Party headed by James Bolger. Bolger’s administration took the reform process even further, extending privatization of state industries and imposing heavy reductions in welfare-state services. There was strong opposition to many of these policies and, in 1992, New Zealanders voted in a referendum to change the electoral system to a mixed-member-proportional system that would increase the power of the country’s smaller parties. The change was confirmed in a 1993 referendum held at the same time as the general election. Bolger’s administration survived, but with its overall majority reduced to one. A junior member of the government left the National Party in September 1994 to set up the Right of Centre Party. He retained his place in the administration, however, as Bolger was forced to enter an immediate coalition with the new party to preserve his parliamentary majority. In June 1995 seven National Party and Labour Party MPs formed the United New Zealand Party. A coalition was agreed between the National Party government and the United Party in February 1996, which gave the government a majority of one vote.

The International Court of Justice refused a request by the New Zealand government, in September, to reactivate a case brought before the Court in 1973 seeking to ban France from conducting nuclear tests in the Pacific. Australia and New Zealand had earlier been accused by the French of conspiring to “get France out of the Pacific”.

The first general election to the 120-seat parliament to be held under the new electoral system, based on proportional representation, was held in October. No party achieved an overall majority, but the National Party polled the largest share of the vote, with 34 per cent. In December a coalition of the National Party and the nationalist New Zealand First (NZF) party was formed. The leader of the NZF, Winston Peters, a former member of Bolger’s Cabinet and of Maori descent, was appointed Deputy Prime Minister and Treasurer. Demands for tougher gun-control legislation were made in February 1997 following the mass murder of six people by a lone gunman in Raurimu.

In November 1997 Jim Bolger announced his resignation. He was replaced by Jenny Shipley—New Zealand’s first female prime minister. Shipley had been lobbying for the leadership and took advantage of Bolger’s absence at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting to solicit for support. One of Bolger’s last official acts as prime minister was the signing of the Ngai Tahu Crown Settlement offer. This offer provides Ngai Tahu, a South Island Maori tribe, with an apology for past injustices, compensation amounting to US$99 million for land claims, and the return of Mount Cook (renamed Aoraki Mount Cook under the provisions), a number of mountain tops, and 35,000 hectares (86,500 acres) of land; the land has since been leased back to the Crown for conservation.

In February 1998 a five-week-long power crisis began in New Zealand’s largest city, Auckland. The four cables feeding electricity to the city failed under severe environmental conditions brought about by an unusually hot and dry summer. Revolving power cuts and blackouts affected the city, with the central business district suffering severe disruption; many retailers are seeking compensation from the power company. A ministerial inquiry was set up to investigate and outline the causes of the power cut.